Document Type

Article

Publication Date

11-20-2025

Publication Title

Journal of Astronomical Telescopes, Instruments, and Systems

Department

Thayer School of Engineering

Abstract

Astronomers’ pursuit of imaging light from increasingly faint and distant objects in the expanse of space necessitates continuous improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio of camera technology. Recent advancements in solid-state detector technologies have enabled the determination of photon number, including single-photon events, enabling observations at the fundamental limits of physics. We present an evaluation of three next-generation silicon-based detectors capable of photon-counting with deep-sub-electron input-referred read noise: the electron-multiplying charge-coupled device (EMCCD), the single-photon avalanche diode (SPAD), and the CMOS quanta image sensor (QIS). The EMCCD is built using a CCD sensor design that additionally employs repeated impact ionization to amplify the signal during readout, thereby reducing input-referred readout noise to deep-sub-electron levels and facilitating single-photon counting. SPAD devices utilize fast in-pixel signal amplification via impact ionization and positive feedback to achieve negligible effective read noise and precise time-of-arrival measurements of photons, enabling high-precision distance measurement and photon-counting. QIS devices take a distinct approach by utilizing a CMOS pixel topology that increases conversion gain without the need for impact ionization, thereby reducing readout noise to deep-sub-electron levels and enabling photon-number resolution, high dynamic range, and high spatial resolution. Characteristics of a representative device from each technology are evaluated with an emphasis on suitability for space flight missions. Furthermore, a summary analysis of emerging CCD and CMOS image sensors with “Skipper” readout for photon-number-resolving applications is also discussed in this report.

DOI

doi.org/10.1117/1.JATIS.11.4.042233

Original Citation

Shade, Nicholas R., et al. “Characterization and Evaluation of Next-Generation Photon-Counting Image Sensors for Space Applications.” Journal of Astronomical Telescopes, Instruments, and Systems, vol. 11, no. 04, Nov. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1117/1.JATIS.11.4.042233.

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